Starting Grammar - Common Nouns - With Exercises

Common Nouns

We have already looked at nouns and verbs.  At its simplest, nouns denote things; the term is derived from the Latin nomen, meaning 'name' in English.  In French, nom means both 'noun' and 'name'.  However, there are different classes of nouns.  These are common nouns, proper nouns and abstract nouns.  Here, we deal with common nouns.

As the name suggests, common nouns denote groups of things and so a common noun denotes one group, e.g. birds or plants.  They are the most often encountered form of noun.  These are not capitalised unless they are the first word of a sentence.

Exercise 1

In the following unfinished phrases, the words in italics are common nouns.  Complete each phrase by adding another common noun that is suitable.  You may find a dictionary helpful.

Example:  The hilt of a _____

Answer:  The hilt of a sword.

a.  The spokes of a...

b.  The keel of a...

c.  The pendulum of a...

d.  The rungs of a...

e.  The fuselage of an...

f.  The kernel of a...

g.  The jamb of a...

h.  The radius of a...

I.  The pistil of a...

j.  The estuary of a...

Exercise 2

In the following statements the words in italics are common nouns.  Complete each statement by adding another common noun (one word only) that is suitable.

Example:  Polo is a...

Answer:  Polo is a game.

a.  A cello is an...

b.  A lizard is a...

c.  An antelope is an...

d.  Spinach is a...

e.  An aster is a...

f.  A quail is a...

g.  Granite is a...

h.  A pomegranate is a...

I.  A doublet is a...

j.  Badminton is a...

Exercise 3

A common type of definition in the dictionary is that in which we are told:

1.  the class or group to which a thing belongs;

2.  the use to which it is put.

Here is the pattern:

A/An Class or group for Use or purpose

For example, we can define a hammer as

A tool for driving in nails.

Write short definitions of the following words.  Underline every noun.

a.  dynamo

b.  bucket

c.  pincers

d.  camera

e.  putty

f.  wardrobe

g.  catapult

h.  telegraph

Exercise 4

In each of the following sentences the word in italics is a common noun.  Substitute another common noun that means the same (or nearly the same) thing.

Example:  The soap has a pleasant perfume.

Answer:  The soap has a pleasant smell.

a.  It was only a mischievous prank.

b.  They found that the sepulchre was empty.

c.  This was forbidden by an ancient statute.

d.  His respiration became weaker.

e.  Many thermometers contain quicksilver.

f.  People said that he was a sorcerer.

g.  The barrel is full of molasses.

h.  He has fractured his femur.

Exercise 5

All the words in the two lists below are common noun.  Each person referred to in List A is often associated with one of the persons in List B.  Pair them off like this:

employer and workman

List A:  employer, doctor, king, host, nobleman, governess, mayor, editor, lawyer.

List B:  patient, client, workman, pupil, retainer, journalist, subject, guest, alderman.

Exercise 6 - Same word, different meaning

Use each of these common nouns twice, in two sentences, to show that it can mean two quite different things.  Be sure that you use the words as nouns - that is, as the names of things.

Example:  sash.

Suggested Answer:  (1) She wore a white sash around her waist.  (2) The sash of the kitchen window is jammed. 

sole

smack

plane

tip

scales

mail

file

race

riddle

rent

Exercise 7 - What is he called?

A person who travels is called a traveller, and one who assists is an assistant.  Using your dictionary to make sure of the correct spelling, say what the following persons are called:

A person who:

a. ...begs for food.

b. ...competes against others.

c.  ...applies for something.

d.  ...represents a firm.

e. ...studies for an examination.

f. ...corresponds with you by post.

g. ...conspires to commit a crime.

h. ...brags about his skill.

I.  ...deputises for his master.

j.  ...criticises a theatrical play.

k.  ...saves his nation from disaster.

l.  ...depends on others for a living.

Make a list of any twenty of the common nouns contained in this passage from The Black Arrow.

Upon the very margin of the ditch, not thirty feet from where they crouched, an iron cauldron bubbled and steamed above a glowing fire; and close by, in an attitude of listening, as though he had caught some sound of their movements among the ruins, a tall, red-faced, battered-looking man stood poised, an iron spoon in his right hand, a horn and a formidable dagger at his belt.  Plainly this was the singer; plainly he had been stirring the cauldron, when some incautious step among the lumber had fallen upon his ear.  Near by another man lay slumbering, rolled in a brown cloak, with a butterfly hovering above his face.

Starting Grammar - Masculines and Feminines

Masculines and Feminines

Although English does not usually categorise nouns as masculine and feminine (unless the words denote words with physical sex, e.g. nun, lion, etc.), it does possess masculine and feminine forms of certain words.  These change (or 'morph') with their physical sex, thus 'lion' becomes 'lioness'.   Below you will find a list of the most common sexed words found in English.

abbot (m); abbess (f)

actor (m); actress (f)

aunt (f); uncle (m)

author (m); authoress (f)

bachelor (m); spinster (f)

barman (m); barmaid (f)

baron (m); baroness (f)

beau (m); belle (f)

belle (f);  beau (f)

billy-goat (m); nanny-goat (f)

bitch (f); dog (m)

blond (f); blonde (m)

boar (m); sow (f)

boy (m); girl (f)

brave (m);  squaw (f)

bridegroom (m); bride (f)

brother (m); sister (f)

buck (m); doe (f)

bull (m); cow (f)

cock (m); hen (f)

cockerel (m); pullet (f)

cock-sparrow (m); hen-sparrow (f)

colt (m); filly (f)

conductor (m); conductress (f)

count (m); countess (f)

countess (f); count (m)

cow (f); bull (m)

czar (m); czarina (f)

dam (f); sire (m)

daughter (f); son (m)

deacon (m); deaconess (f)

doe (f); buck (m)

dog (m); bitch (f)

drake (m); duck (f)

duchess (f); duke (m)

duck (f); drake (m)

duke (m); duchess (f)

earl (m); countess (f)

emperor (m); empress (f)

enchanter (m); enchantress (f)

ewe (f); ram or wether (m)

executor (m); executrix (f)

father (m); mother (f)

fiancé (m); fiancée (f)

filly (f); colt (m)

fox (m); vixen (f)

gander (m); goose (f)

gentleman (m); lady (f)

girl (f); boy (f)

god (m); goddess (f)

goose (f); gander (m)

governor (m); governess (f)

hart (m); hind (f)

headmaster (m); headmistress (f)

he-ass (m); she-ass (f)

he-bear (m); she-bear (f)

he-goat (m); she-goat (f)

heifer (f); steer (m)

heir (m); heiress (f)

hen (f); cock (m)

hen-sparrow (f); cock-sparrow (m)

hero (m); heroine (f)

hind (f); stag or hart (m)

host (m); hostess (f)

hunter (m); huntress (f)

husband (m); wife (f)

instructor (m); instructress (f)

Jew (m); Jewess (f)

king (m); queen (f)

lad (m); lass (f)

lady (f); gentleman (m)

landlord (m); landlady (f)

lass (f); lad (m)

lion (m); lioness (f)

lord (m); lady (f)

madam (f); sir (m)

maidservant (f); manservant (m)

man (m); woman (f)

manager (m); manageress (f)

manservant (m); maidservant (f)

marchioness (f); marquis or marquess (m)

mare (f); stallion (m)

marquess (m); marchioness (f)

marquis (m); marchioness (f)

masseur (m); masseuse (f)

master (m); mistress (f)

mayor (m); mayoress (f)

mistress (f); master (m)

monk (m); nun (f)

mother (f); father (m)

murderer (m); murderess (f)

nanny-goat (f); billy-goat (m)

nephew (m); niece (f)

niece (f); nephew (m)

nun (f); monk (m)

peacock (m); peahen (f)

peer (m); peeress (f)

poet (m); poetess (f)

priest (m); priestess (f)

prince (m); princess (f)

prophet (m); prophetess (f)

proprietor (m); proprietress (f)

protégé (m); protégée (f)

pullet (f); cockerel (m)

queen (f); king (m)

ram (m); ewe (f)

she-ass (f); he-ass (m)

she-bear (f); he-bear (m)

she-goat (f); he-goat (m)

shepherd (m); shepherdess (f)

sir (m); madam (f)

sire (m); dam (f)

sister (f); brother (m)

sloven (m); slut (f)

son (m); daughter (f)

sorcerer (m); sorceress (f)

sow (f); boar (m)

spinster (f); bachelor (m)

squaw (f); brave (m)

stag (m); hind (f)

stallion (m); mare (f)

steer (m); heifer (f)

steward (m); stewardess (f)

sultan (m); sultana (f)

tabby-cat (f); tom-cat (m)

tailor (m); tailoress (f)

tiger (m); tigress (f)

tom-cat (m); tabby-cat (f)

traitor (m); traitress (f)

turkey-cock (m); turkey-hen (f)

uncle (m); aunt (f)

vixen (f); fox (m)

waiter (m); waitress (f)

wether (m); ewe (f)

widow (f); widower (m)

wife (f); husband (m)

witch (f); wizard (m)

wizard (m); witch (f)

woman (f); man (m)

Starting Grammar - An Introduction

Grammar - Method and Madness

Posts will normally appear daily on this blog covering different aspects of grammar, composition and other aspects of language.  The more practical explanations will include exercises.  No answers are given as the blogger does not have the time to do that too.  The approach aims to help readers improve their English through gradual acquisition and application of knowledge of the language.  Comments and insights are very welcome.

Starting Grammar - The Theory of Language - The Importance of Grammar

The Importance of Grammar

As we noted in the last 'blog post, grammar was the initial stage of a liberal education.  One might ask, What is a liberal education?  To the classical mind, it is the education of the freeman, that prepares a man to be free and that he deserves by virtue of his freedom.  Since the eighteenth century, however, our ideas of freedom have changed.  In the classical world, freedom was strongly connected to goodness whereas in the eighteenth century, thanks largely to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, it became identified for the first time with spontaneity.  This has been termed naturalism, i.e. the belief that a child, if left to its own devices, will flourish better than if forced into an unnatural and impersonal 'mould'.  One of the chief and most baleful consequences of this school of thought has been the notion that disorder is positively beneficial in education.  Hence, the teaching and understanding of grammar have become very much obscured and its serious study rarely undertaken.

In the classical mind, grammar was not simply a linguistic term, but it denoted the structure of understanding.  Thus, Blessed John Henry Cardinal Newman, perhaps the greatest nineteenth century theologian, wrote his Grammar of Assent to describe the structure of religious faith.  Various ideological movements have largely abolished this understanding; deconstruction is but one example.  The notion that permanent rules, required by the nature of things, would help human understanding are now largely out of place, save in languages and the empirical sciences.  We might say that method has come to replace grammar, that continually renewed investigation has come to replace inherited laws.  At the heart of this change has been a philosophical revolution; the move to a much more fluid and relativistic understanding of the world has affected language deeply.  The clarity and fixity of traditional grammar has become deeply unfashionable and rarely valued.

Historically, grammar was valued because it fixed meaning.  An accusation thrown against the ancient sophists (and modern politicians) was that they used 'weasel words', words that might mean anything to different people.  In ancient Athens, the Sophists were identified with a deceiving success; in the Phaedrus, Socrates (Plato's mouthpiece) disabuses his young interlocutor of the idea that the Sophist's way is the right one.  The parallels today are uncanny; Sophists were considered to use language for their own advancement and success.  They were the spin-doctors of Antiquity.  As today, an excess of words with little fixed meaning allowed bad men to escape blame and responsibility.  Plato and the Greek tradition fixed the Western mind until the last century upon "being" as the central philosophical principle.  Sophistry would not experience such success until the modern era.

When I was at University, we were warned of the evils of "binaries".  This encouraged us to reject such notions as male/female and good/evil.  Although this term itself rests on a binary (of binary/non-binary understandings), we were meant to accept it as dogma.  As in ancient days, the common man's understanding (i.e. that inherited from the past) was attacked in order to promote a new orthodoxy.  The language was attacked for the sake of political power.  The new "freedom-fighters" were given an otherwise unexplained moral authority.  The language of old, along with institutions, had oppressed them and now they were to go largely unchallenged, their cause unanalysed.  Resistance to changes in language comes in part from the well-founded belief that a new cause is being advanced in an underhand way.  Changes in language often conceal something that wishes to be hidden.

So, what is the value of grammar?  Knowledge of grammar and its use gives us precision and clarity in both reading and writing.  It enables us to measure properly what another has communicated and to respond in a precise and measured way.  It substitutes the common phrases that echo in our heads with mastery of the different possibilities of the language.  Each day, we must consume and digest a vast amount of information, often emotionally conveyed, and we must make some sense and judgement of it.  This is a mammoth task.  Gauging and judging the clarity, content and correctness of any statement begins in the manner in which it is made.  With practice, we become better at judging the truth of statements based on our knowledge of language and of facts.  While grammar is not enough in itself, it is the indisputable foundation.  Without it, we carry only the memory of strong emotions generated by slogans as the foundation of our (almost certainly erroneous) judgement.

Beyond this merely utilitarian purpose, grammar is also very enjoyable.  There is something called pedant's pleasure, after all!  The male mind, in particular, enjoys the challenge of rule-based understanding, of sharpening itself and catching others out.  Agonising over whether a group of words is a sentence or phrase has a relieving catharsis when one finds the answer.  There is also a deep, abiding pleasure in understanding how one's knowledge has deepened.  Learning the French word nom ('noun' or 'name') and then coming to understand its connection to noun and its origin in the Latin nomen allows one to see the gathered heritage of many centuries and civilisations, from ancient Athens to the Renaissance, the Enlightenment and the modern era. 

We conclude by exhorting our readers to fervent study of grammar.  The Sorbonne gives the title of Cour de civilisation française to its grammar textbook.  Its rules, like those in English, are derived from the best of its writers to give both clarity and style to the written language.  This is likewise a Course in English Civilisation.  The elaboration of English was one of the defining events of the early modern era and it was both a tool of Empire and born of a hitherto unparalleled exposure to the world.  No modern student or scholar can afford to neglect either the study of English or of grammar.  They are the foundation of prosperity and knowledge.

Starting Grammar - Phrases and Sentences and Nouns and Verbs - With Exercises

Introduction

Today, we begin our study of grammar.  In the classical liberal education, the grammar stage is the initial stage, of acquiring knowledge of the words, terms and rules that govern a subject.  These enable you to write clearly, confidently and concisely, especially on complex subjects.  Long ago, this was done through studying Latin and Greek, so the scholar would be able to read the ancient classics of European civilisation.  However, we shall use the English language in our studies.

Phrases and Sentences

If someone tells us, "I live in the suburbs of Manchester", we understand what he means quite clearly but if he suddenly says, "The suburbs of Manchester", we wait to see if he will say anything else in the hope he will make sense.  "I live in Manchester", is a sentence because it makes sense and has a complete meaning in itself.  "The suburbs of Manchester" is not a whole statement (i.e. one that makes sense and has a complete meaning in itself) and so it is called a phrase.

Exercise 1

Say which of the following are sentences and which are phrases:

a.  Down by the bridge.
b.  Peter said nothing.
c.  All the day long.
d.  The sea is salt.
e.  Next to the doctor's surgery.
f.  Nelson was wounded.
g.  Grass grows.
h.  As cold as ice.
i.  Up the hill he went.
j.  Go to your places.

Nouns and verbs in phrases and sentences

A sentence will always contain a noun and a verb.  Nouns are defined by the Oxford English Dictionary thus:

...a word (other than a pronoun) used to identify any of a class of people, places, or things (common noun), or to name a particular one of these (proper noun).

Verbs are defined thus:

...a word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main part of the predicate of a sentence, such as hear, become, happen.

In other words, nouns deal with who or what is doing the doing (or whatever has something to be done to it), i.e. with things, while verbs deal with the doing itself, i.e. the act.  Nouns deal with things, verbs with doing.

Exercise 2

Identify the nouns and the verbs, if present, in the following phrases and sentences:

a.  The Queen woke in the morning.

b.  Ships sail.

c.  In the suburbs.

d.  Awake!

e.  Education is a great good.

f.  She cycled ten thousand miles.

g.  Sir Edmund Hilary climbed Mount Everest because he could.

h.  Britain conquered half the world in fit of absent mindedness.

i.  To Church!

j.  Fish forget.

Dictionary definitions and phrases and sentences

Dictionary definitions are usually given in the form of phrases, e.g.

diadem.  A crown.

heart.  The blood-pump of the body.

Here, we give the same information in the form of sentences:

A diadem is a crown.

The heart is the blood-pump of the body.

Exercise 3

Look up the following words in a dictionary and define them in full sentences:

a.  tarpaulin

b.  delta

c.  eel

d.  borax

e.  oboe

f.  sky

g.  elbow

h.  tinfoil

i.  whale

j.  honey

k.  pliers

l.  dinosaur

Phrases and Sentences - More Exercises

Exercise 4

Turn these phrases into sentences by making suitable additions:

a.  Behind a hedge...

b.  On the stroke of twelve...

c.  A few days ago...

d.  Since yesterday...

e.  At the foot of the cliff...

f.  In spite of his tiredness...

g.  Father along the road...

Exercise 5

Turn these phrases into sentences by putting not less than four words in front of each:

a. ...a most interesting book.

b.  ...inside the cave.

c.  ...a horse without a rider.

d.  ...at the water's edge.

e.  ...throughout the day.

f.  ...at regular intervals.

Exercise 6

It is possible to remove a phrase from each of the following sentences and leave a complete sentence.  Write out the sentences that remain when these phrases are removed and make sure that they convey the main sense of the originals:

Example:  He sprang to his feet, blazing with anger.

Answer:  He sprang to his feet.

a.  She crept into a back seat, late as usual.
b.  Delighted at our success, we held a part.
c.  With pieces of string he repaired the net.
d.  There he stood, hands on hips.
e.  The men, fearing an explosion, ran for safety.
f.  Each morning, before breakfast, I go for a swim.

Exercise 7

Re-arrange each of these sentences so that the phrase now at the end is moved near the beginning, with commas before and after it.  In the first two sentences, the phrases to be moved are printed in italics. 

Example:  The book is not an easy one, even for adults.
Answer:  This book, even for adults, is not an easy one.

a.  Every pupil has passed the examination, without exception.
b.  The fox walked away in disgust, tired of trying to reach the grapes.
c.  No man could move that boulder, however strong.
d.  Jim kept one eye open, hoping to see Father Christmas.
e.  Mary put her head under the clothes, afraid of the thunder and lightning.
f.  The peasant killed the goose that laid the golden eggs, hoping to get rich quickly.

Phrases and Sentences - Bad English

Some writers attempt to appear conversational and informal avoid long sentences in which several phrases are separated by commas.  Instead, they put them between full stops as though they were sentences.  For example:

The Government should act now.  Before it is too late.

This is thoroughly bad English, and you should not use it in your own writing.

Another form of bad English, of which Tony Blair was often guilty, is to leave out the verb, as we sometimes do in conversation.  For example:

Quite a good idea.

In the following extracts from newspaper columns, pick out the phrases and parts of sentences that are printed as though they are complete sentences.

a.  In Cornwall they order another small, privately-owned bus company to raise its fares.  So that it will keep in line with the higher fares of the big undertakings.  The Government should make up its mind whether it really wants to bring prices down.  Or whether that is just talk.

b.  They flocked into central London in their thousands to see the Royal Wedding.  East Enders determined to show that they were as loyal as ever.  Youngsters for whom this was a new experience.  And old-age pensioners who wondered if this might be their last chance.  A night in the streets wouldn't stop them!

c.  Fifty thousand pounds is to be spent on tests for the hull of a new America's Cup challenger.  A lot of money to spend before a yacht is even started.  But not too much.

d.  From the doctors, good news.  Coupled with a warning.  Deaths from whooping-cough are down.  And still falling.  But they could rise again if precautions are relaxed.

e.  This man knows what it is like to endure failure and misfortune.  Because he has known fame and glory.  Ten years ago he was a celebrity.  Today he is almost forgotten.

Revision

Once you have completed the exercises, revise the terms given for phrases, sentences, nouns and verbs and memorise them.  Then, open a book or a newspaper and try and identify them in the text.

The Language Wizard!

Welcome to the Language Wizard 'blog! This is a humble corner of the Internet for exploring grammar, good English, language learning and the art of composition. I am an Oxford University postgraduate with a first degree in Modern Languages (French, Italian and Spanish). My education has centred on the riches of language and its proper and effective use. These are not taught very well in many schools and so this is my small effort to teach the glories of the English tongue. This 'blog is designed to help all those who wish to improve their English. I offer very high quality tutoring in the best surroundings in Oxford for very competitive rates. Please do contact me if you would like to use my services. So, where do we begin? Perhaps with a word on resources. In private tutoring work, I have always used Walter D. Wright's A Basic Course in English, an excellent textbook that gives a very thorough grounding in the grammar, punctuation and essential structures of Standard English. It is a useful and memorable workbook that will stretch the most able while catering for all abilities too. An ideal companion is A First English Companion, by the same author, which provides the most comprehensive collection of essential terms and idiomatic terms the English student will ever find. Both books can be obtained inexpensively from Amazon, Abebooks or Waterstones. They are far better value than other, more modern books that are invariably more expensive and less useful. Now let us speak about method. The preoccupation with method in education has been a blight for almost two hundred years. More important is the content that is imparted to pupils. Cutting and pasting does not make for fine writers! An understanding of English and capacity in communication and writing are imparted and honed by knowledge and reading. This is an enjoyable process. Belles lettres make for good writers! The role of the teacher is to impart knowledge, to correct, guide and encourage and the student must be ready to listen to him. As we all know, English is the language of world diplomacy and commerce, the Latin of the modern era. Our studies will benefit from a broader historical and scholarly perspective. You will find your understanding of English and also of our civilisation greatly deepened. So, please do follow this blog and contribute!